From the 1960s to the 1990s, changes occurred from the college atmosphere to common family practices. In the 1960s, U.S. college campuses endured advancements upon students and professors teaming up to eliminate the existing double standards (Willets, 2021). The 1970s put many new policies and acts in place which altered coupling practices and more. The 1980s was a period of consumerism, also bringing reproductive technologies largely aiding infertile couples. Families experienced work fatigue throughout the 1990s, and several innovations in family life occurred thereafter. Each decade offered a different leap forward and changed the way individuals, couples, and families maneuver the U.S.

1960s

The most notable occurrences in the 1960s were in its later years, where changes were striking when compared to the 1950s. During this decade, the civil rights movement was seen, where individuals were advocating and agitating for an end to racism, legal discrimination, and more (Willets, 2021). There were several movements led by students, protests against the Vietnam War, and fights for women’s rights and liberation, especially with regard to reproductive freedom. Above all, college students were at the forefront of most progressive movements because they were young, educated, and able to recognize the existent inequality in traditional practice, making them largely a liberal and active crowd.

Prior to the 1960s, college men and women were treated differently by administration, who took on the role of “in loco parentis,” which is Latin for “in place of parents” (Willets, 2021). There was heavy supervision over students, and there was an existing notion that men always and only got women into trouble and not the other way around; thus, women were cracked down upon with rules more so than men, even as the men were accused of being “bad influences” on the women (Willets, 2021). Due to the double standard, women were viewed as needing protection from men. There were no co-ed dorms, and off-campus cohabitation was prohibited. Dormitory rules inflicted upon female students were strict, as no visitors of the opposite sex were allowed in dorm rooms, curfews were present, and students had to sign in and out of the dorms. Women even had to get written permission from their “dorm mothers,” who acted as mothers and supervisors for floors, if they could stay out past curfew (Willets, 2021). If there were too many curfew violations, it would become a part of the student’s written record.

Students opposed the double standard on their campuses and restored women’s freedom relative to men’s (Willets, 2021). Men were also held more accountable for their deviance than women as things began to change. Some of the changes made on college campuses include the installation of co-ed dorms, a removal of the need to sign in and out of dorms, and an elimination of curfews. Most universities, especially public, abandoned “in loco parentis,” and off-campus cohabitation was no longer an issue for universities.

Whilst students were engaging in rebellions, the boycotting of classes, and protests, professors joined them (Willets, 2021). They would engage in “sit-ins,” which were when students and faculty would occupy offices of the president and sit there until their demands were met. They would also host demonstrations on campus with hopes of attracting attention to their concerns and addressing them publicly.

There is a concern today that universities are not doing enough to protect and discipline students. This perspective mainly appears from the conservative segment of the population. Some of the issues on campuses include hazing students, alcohol poisoning, drug overdoses, casual sexual activity leading to sexually transmitted diseases. There then came a call for universities to re-adopt the role of “in loco parentis.” This movement attempted to reestablish curfews, single-sex dorms with strict visitation hours, and to ben fraternities and sororities. The counterargument stated that there is no going back. There is also supposed nostalgia and a belief that colleges cannot go back in time. Non-college youth are also engaging in the same behavior, and no one is regulating them, so the argument would be, “why regulated college students then?” (Willets, 2021).

1970s

The 1970s brought birth control to the surface and revolutionized how couples had sex. It allowed no interruption during intercourse (Willets, 2021). It was illegal for the first few years after its development. It also gave women more control over their reproductive life. One notable supreme court case was Griswold versus Connecticut in 1965. This case fought to make pills legal, and the result was legalization of the pills only for married couples. Another case was Eisenstadt versus Baird in 1972, which advocated for being able to control reproductive life and overpopulation. The supreme court then made the pill legal for single people as well. Lastly, the case of Carey versus Population Services International in 1977 caused the supreme court to make the pill legal for minors, which were people under the age of 16.

These cases and the pill becoming widespread allowed women to control their fertility without the cooperation of men (Willets, 2021). Other forms of contraceptives such as condoms and diaphragms required male cooperation. Thus, the pill separated sexual activity from reproduction. A drawback of this was that contraction was mainly women’s responsibility and not that of men, especially because women get pregnant and not men. Yet, the pills still introduced a new era of proliferation of birth control methods that separated sex from reproduction. It also redefined the meaning of marriage and separated it from parenting and also from sexual activity. More people began choosing not to have children. The pill allowed for a dramatic increase in non-marital sexual activity with couple not in a relationship at all. It also resulted in an increase in pre-marital sexual activity (in a relationship) and also with affairs/cheating.

Abortion also experienced heavy legal changes in this decade since it neither legal nor illegal in the 1800s, midwives would perform them, and physicians led a fight to make it illegal for their own success, and they succeeded in this effort (Willets, 2021). Roe versus Wade was a supreme court case in Dallas, Texas in 1970 which included a single, pregnant woman going against a district attorney. It was against the law to get an abortion if it was not to save the life of the mother. Roe was poor and could not afford to travel to a state with more lenient abortion laws. She eventually gave birth and put the child up for adoption. In 1973, abortion was finally legalized by trimester. In the first trimester of a pregnancy, abortion was legal and available without any interference from the state. In the second trimester, it was legal but restricted regarding who would perform it, how it was performed, and where. In the third trimester, the state may prohibit women from getting abortions except if it is to save her life. As a pregnancy progresses, a state’s compelling interest shifts from a priority being places on the well-being of the woman to the well-being of the fetus.

A challenge to Roe versus Wade included the case of Bellotti versus Baird, decided in 1979. It allowed states to require parental consent or notification for a minor to have an abortion. They may also obtain permission from the courts instead. 38 states have parental consent/notification laws (Willets, 2021). There are also waiting periods of 24 hours. “Informed consent” ended up being struck down by the supreme court, however. Another challenge to the abortion case was Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania versus Casey, decided in 1992, which Casey wanting wives to give consent. Yet, Planned Parenthood believed wives cannot be legally required to inform their husbands of their desire to abort their children before obtaining abortions. In reality, a vast majority of wives inform their husbands anyways.

Other changes in family behavior throughout the 1970s included a dramatic increase in cohabitation. Ages at marriage also increased as well as first ages at childbearing (Willets, 2021). This caused there to be a lower fertility rate. People were also less likely to get married, and there was an increase in women’s educational and occupational attainments. As Judith Stacey put it, times were changing from when “Men and women married, made love, and produced gurgling Gerber babies (in that proper order)” (Jabour 2005:457). Sexual innovation also occurred, as mate-swapping became a practice, where two straight couples traded spouses. There was also the concept of “swinging,” which was an open relationship, allowing random one-night stands. Open marriage was included with two different types of arrangements, from unilateral (only one spouse could mess with others) to bilateral (both spouses can mess with others) types.

1980s

In the 1980s, the average age at marriage increased to 23 for women and 26 for men (Willets, 2021). The average fertility rate was 2.08, which was close to replacement level at 2.1. The divorce rates also increased in the 1970s to the mid-1980s due to the no-fault divorce policies. It began to decrease in the late 1980s and is continuing to do so along with marriage rates. There had to be one innocent spouse when divorces were desired. People thus often presented fabricated stories to courts about cheating or other things in order to get divorces because both of them could not be guilty or innocent at the same time.

This decade was one of extreme consumerism (Willets, 2021). Although other decades were, as well, such as in the 1920s when people were buying the new inventions, such as cards, radios, and phonographs, and in the 1950s when people were buying household items, such as washing machines and other furniture, the 1980s was a decade of buying luxury items, such as cars, jewelry, and other high-end items which were often more so wanted than needed. There is a difference between relative deprivation and absolute deprivation which disabled many families from engaging in the consumeristic lifestyle. Relative deprivation was merely the feeling of deprivation and being unable to buy more than what is needed. There are groups which wish to compete with the affluent groups who are living lavishly. Absolute deprivation is true poverty, including families which struggle to afford even what they need and could never live buying what they wanted all the time.

There were several methods through media that were used to portray the consumeristic and affluent lifestyle, making it desirable to all and also contributing to the feeling of relative deprivation and the desire to compete with neighbors who are doing more with their money in comparison (Willets, 2021). Television programs, such as “Dallas” and “Dynasty” portrayed greed and the rich life. Movies included “Wall Street” and “Billionaire Boys Club,” and television shows included “Pet Shop Boys” and “Let’s Make Lots of Money.” Making and spending money became a national past-time, as individuals went to shopping malls more often than attending religious services. There was an overall increase in consumption of luxury items. The consequences of this included high rates of personal debt, low personal savings rates, and the national debt tripled.

One massive innovation in this decade were reproductive technologies. Infertility is defined as the inability to get pregnant after 12 months of unprotected sex (Willets, 2021). 10% of married couples are infertile. 1/3 of these cases are due to a medical problem with the male, another 1/3 is due to a problem with the female, and the final 1/3 is due to both partners having medical problems or have no known cause.

The first type of reproductive technology is artificial insemination, and it is the cheapest (Willets, 2021). It is best for when there is a problem with the male and includes vaginal insemination with sperm of the husband, an anonymous donor, or both. If there is a donor, the cost of their sperm is based upon their characteristics, talents, and other factors which make them more genes more desirable. Women get to experience pregnancy and childbirth in this scenario. The method is typically shrouded in secrecy, and any children born to the wife are legally defined as belonging to her husband, so there are no custody battles.

Another reproductive technology is egg donation, and this one is more expensive (Willets, 2021). This is usually done when there is a problem with the female, so it is the female equivalent of artificial insemination. Hormones are given to cause superovulation to the donor, then surgery is done to remove the eggs from the donor. Those eggs are then inserted into the infertile woman. The woman then gets to experience pregnancy and childbirth, and it is shrouded in secrecy with no custody battles again.

A third type of reproductive technology is in-vitro fertilization, which is the most expensive and is usually done if the man has a low sperm count or if the woman is older. Eggs from the female and sperm from the male are mixed in a petri dish in a laboratory, and the fertilized eggs are transferred back into the woman. These babies are often called “test-tube babies” (Willets, 2021). The woman, again, gets to experience childbirth and there are no custody battles.

The final form of reproductive technology is surrogacy, which is more socially controversial than the other types. There are two types, and neither can be kept a secret because the female is never pregnant. It can be referred to as “baby-selling” (Willets, 2021). The first type of surrogacy is genetic surrogacy, done when the woman is infertile. A couple that wants a child hires another woman to be artificially inseminated with contracting the man’s sperm. There was a case where this type went wrong, called the “Baby M Case,” where a surrogate working for a couple decided to keep the baby, which broke the contract and resulted in a lawsuit. Since a baby is legally the child of a married couple who had the baby, the father who was contracting would have had to adopt his own child, along with the wife.

The second type of surrogacy is called gestatory surrogacy, and this is when the surrogate only carried the baby (Willets, 2021). There are also two types of gestatory surrogacy, the first being where the contracting couple provide both the eggs and the sperm and hire only a surrogate. The second type is when there is a potential for five parents, including the egg donor, the sperm donor, the surrogate, and the contracting couple. With this type, there is controversy regarding who the biological mother is because it would seemingly be the egg donor or the surrogate. In both types, the contracting couple must adopt the child.

There is also adoption, where neither parent is related to the child. It is often the last resort and forces couples to change their ideas of parenthood. There are always concerns that the biological parent(s) will attempt to reclaim their child, as it has successfully happened before. There is also the concern of an “inextinguishable biological bond” or that the children are “second-rate children” because the parents do not have knowledge about the child’s history or birth parents.

1990s

This decade was one of combining family and work. Before 1993, the U.S. was one of the very few western industrialized countries without a national leave policy (Willets, 2021). 35 states and D.C. had proposed or enacted some parental leave statute because of the belief that employers were not doing enough to help employees combine family work, being inflexible. The Family and Medical Leave Act came about in 1993 by former President Bill Clinton and was the first piece of legislation Clinton signed upon becoming president. It allowed a 12-week unpaid period for family or medical reasons, which included if a child was born or adopted, a parent became a foster parent, care for a seriously ill family member (parents, spouse, or child), or for an employee’s own extended medical leave. The leave can be taken all at one or broken into parts, and it only applies to firms with at least 50 full-time employees, which caused an exemption for small businesses. Employees could use their accrued paid time off.

When compared to European nations, the U.S. is about 10 years behind them in implementing these policies and is also much less lenient and considerate in their allowances. While the U.S. offers no pay for such time off, Greece, as the least flexible/lenient nation in this regard, allows a 12-week leave paid at 50%. Finland allows a 12-month leave paid at 80%. Sweden allows a 15-month leave paid at 100% (Willets, 2021).

A recession hit the 1990s but only for about five months, hitting the middle class for the first time. There was too much supply and not enough demand because too much was invested into technology. The ability for the middle class to buy homes and afford splurges (vacations, etc.) began decreasing during this time. Downward mobility in this way was brand new to the middle class, and the lifestyle they were taking for granted became increasingly out of reach. This resulted in frustration, anger, and the questioning of the validity of having a work ethic.

Surveys done of U.S. adults indicated feelings of being stuck in a “cycle of work and spend,” not having enough time each day, and overwhelmingness of responsibilities of work and family (Willets, 2021). According to Professor of Sociology Marion Willets, they felt that they were running at “a marathon distance at a sprint pace” (2021). 2/3 of Americans also reported feeling sleep deprived. There then came a voluntary simplicity movement, which was considered social and caused workers to choose to work fewer hours and reduce their income to overcome “affluenza,” which was term coined to mean a desire to keep up with neighbors in their financial endeavors and lavish lifestyles in order to outdo their accomplishments.

Innovations in Family Life

Marriage and divorce laws were determined by individual states. The requirements for marriage include the minimum age being 18 (Willets, 2021). In Illinois, parental consent is required for those 16 to 17. There are also incest laws, which ban siblings, parents, children, aunts, uncles, nieces, and nephews from marrying, with cousins banned in some states. Marriage licenses are present with ceremonies, and most states only allowed heterosexual marriages. Some states or counties require blood tests to ensure both partners are safe to have children.

Common-law marriages were common in the 1800s and still occur in some places. Some couples wanting to marry could not because they were too far from officials—justices of the peace, ministers (Willets, 2021). 24 states officially decreed common-law marriages and revoked them. 10 states and D.C. recognize common-law marriages. The requirements are that the couple live together for a vague period of time. The couple must present themselves as if they are married and also intend to officially marry eventually. They must also legally divorce to end their marriage.

Berkley, California in 1984 was the first place to recognize non-legal relationships as Licensed Domestic Partnerships, which is when couples live together in an intimate or romantic union (Willets, 2021). The purpose was to grant public acknowledgement to the unions of same-sex couples. The city council extended eligibility to unmarried different-sex couples as well. Partners are defined as two financially interdependent adults who lives together, share an intimate bond, and are not related by blood or law. To engage in a Licensed Domestic Partnership, couples must pay a fee and complete an affidavit form attesting to the fact that the couple is not related or married to anyone else, are mutually responsible for each other’s welfare, and will notify their local records office if there is a change in the relationship, such as a legal marriage or dissolution.

In order to dissolve a partnership, one partner must inform the office where the partnership was registered (Willets, 2021). They may register another partnership six months after terminating the prior one. Since Berkey, nine states have implemented partnership allowances along with the District of Columbia and more than 70 municipalities. It is still legally available, but the future status is unknown. The tangible benefits include health insurance coverage for a partner, bereavement leave, and making medical decisions for a partner. Most states include all state-level rights and responsibilities of marriage. Municipalities have few or no benefits. No federal-level rights or responsibilities of marriage were present due to the Defense of Marriage Act in 1996, allowing only one man and one woman to marry.

There were also Reciprocal Beneficiaries but only in Hawaii and enacted in 1997. Eligibility for it required for couples to be of the same sex. Unmarried relatives and friends of heterosexual and homosexual individuals were legally barred from marrying each other. A handful of state-level rights were accorded to the married. Civil unions were implemented in Delaware, Illinois, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. This was also only available to same-sex couples and required them to meet all other eligibility requirements of marriage. It was the functional equivalent of legal marriage at the state level. When it came to dissolving a civil union, the couple must file for a divorce. If they were to relocate to a different state, getting a divorce would be difficult, if not impossible.

Prior to 2015, same-sex marriages had been illegal. They were first legalized in Massachusetts in 2004, with 13 states following thereafter. Eligibility at this time was restricted to state residents (Willets, 2021). Marriages were not legally acknowledged in most other states. They received all of the state-level benefits and protections of marriage. Out-of-state divorces were nearly impossible to obtain. Obergefell versus Hodges was a court case with 14 same-sex couples including two men whose partners were deceased. One of the surviving partners was Jim Obergefell, and Hodges was the director of the Ohio Department of Health. The argument was that the right to marry is guaranteed under the 14^th amendment of the constitution. They pushed for the right to personal choice regarding marriage, arguing the right to marriage is fundamental. The right to marry also protects children and is fundamental to social order as well. Former President Barack Obama legalized same-sex marriages federally on June 26, 2015.

Covenant marriages were also present which were so due to how easily obtainable divorces are with regular legal marriages. They were implemented in Louisiana in 1997, in Arizona in 1998, and in Arkansas in 2001. Only different-sex couples are eligible for these marriages, and the purpose is largely to return to traditional marriages and fault-based divorce. The requirements are that couples must undergo premarital therapy and may divorce only under extreme circumstances, which include adultery, physical abuse, and/or long-term imprisonment or abandonment. Couples may also convert their marriages to covenant marriages. Over 95% of couples choose legal marriages, however. Legislation is considered in 20 other states but is not yet implemented elsewhere. It is available in two dozen other countries, with 17 in Europe and four in South America, also including Mexico, Canada, Greenland, New Zealand, and South Africa.

From the 1960s to the 2000s, much changed regarding traditional and common family practices, coupling habits and laws, and life on college campuses. There were varying collective hobbies across the decades which modified with changes in policy and changes resulting from progressive movements led by women, college students, and other participants. All in all, the changes are notable and point to a future also filled with a similar evolution.

 

References

Jabour, Anya. 2005. Major Problems in the History of American Families and Children. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Willets, Marion. 2021. Class lectures and PowerPoints. Illinois State University.